American Frontier

How do You Determine the Associates of Your Ancestor?

28 Dec By Dwight

On the recent Salt Lake Christmas Tour, I had the chance to consult a few times with a very knowledgeable woman trying to identify her ancestor’s associates in Augusta County, Virginia prior to 1790. This was no small task. She needed this original cluster of people so she could see who was from Ulster and if her ancestor may have known them there. However, she needed to first move the pack from Augusta County back into some unknown county in Pennsylvania. Remember, this is frontier and very dangerous. Families did not travel alone.

It was in Pennsylvania, she was most likely to identify the original group from Ulster. So we put our heads together and began brainstorming what we could use to reconstruct her ancestor’s neighborhood and associates from Virginia to Pennsylvania.

We came up with land records. Whose land did her ancestor’s land adjoin in Augusta County? That is accomplished by studying the county deeds. Court cases were discovered. With whom was her ancestor involved in court cases? That could help. Then I looked at the published tax lists and realized that the years we needed were divided by district. This in effect divided the county by geographic areas, preserving the theoretical “neighborhood” in which her ancestor lived.

Our solution for her continued efforts was to see where her surname was found in Pennsylvania in the land grant and published tax lists. Then those lists were compared with the residents being taxed in her ancestor’s Augusta County, Virginia tax district. During that time period, was there a common pattern of people coming into Augusta County, Virginia from a particular county in Pennsylvania? That would solve the Virginia to Pennsylvania part of the research.

Once the Pennsylvania county was identified, then she would have townships in which to work. That would automatically help identify her ancestors “neighborhood” and theoretical associates from Ulster geographically within the county. Then she would start the entire process over again. However, this time looking for the original cluster of families who arrived from Ulster along with her ancestor. To identify where some of the group came from would in effect identify from where her ancestor hailed. That’s a good day in frontier American research!

If you would like help with your genealogy please call 385-214-0925.

When to Jump Over the Water in Your Research

21 Dec By Dwight

I just finished consulting with the participants of the wonderful Salt Lake Christmas Tour that comes every year to the Family History Library. It’s been a wonderful experience for more than 20 years.

This year, from teaching classes and consulting non-stop all week, I found myself giving the same advice: “Don’t be so quick to jump over the water in your research.” This principle applies to Catholic and Protestant immigrant research. By way of illustration, I will focus on an early Scots-Irish example.

If tracing a family from Ohio back to Ulster, one must realize that there were possibly stops along the way. The people in the 1700s and early 1800s were on the frontier and traveled in clusters or packs, as I like to call them. It was dangerous times, and families did not travel alone. To eventually find a place of origin in Ulster, research needs to consider the entire pack. To find out where one in the pack was from would be to discover where your ancestor originated. This is great if groups of Ulster Scots families traveled together; however, the stops along the way must be considered.

The theoretical Ohio family in 1810 may have been in East Tennessee by 1800, North Carolina by 1780 and only then back to Ulster sometime in the 1760s. In this case, the original Ulster pack of associates breaks down along the way. If you do not know where in East Tennessee, then trace the frontier group (the pack) from Ohio back to East Tennessee first. Then identify that same or somewhat different group of people, including your ancestor, back from East Tennessee to North Carolina. If that is where the original group settled from Ulster, then it is in North Carolina where you begin to reconstruct the original Ulster pack of immigrants.

If you do not already have a place in Ulster already, then you need to refrain from trying to jumping from Ohio directly back to Ulster. Customarily, the straight jump over the water approach will not work. Identifying the original group of immigrants in North Carolina, and then tracing them back to Ulster is typically how it works.

If you would like help with your genealogy please call 385-214-0925.

Reading Between the Lines as a Research Strategy

13 Nov By Dwight

I was researching a Scots-Irish man, and I had his marriage record from 1818 in Knox County, Tennessee. He had children by 1820, somewhere in Alabama. His remarried wife shows up in Pike County, Illinois by the 1830s. That was all I knew.

The migration pattern itself was not unique, but getting some firm facts about my subject between the 1818 marriage and the early 1830s was most difficult. With no place to really start, I decided, he had to die in the county where his wife remarried. She had little children, which required support rather quickly.

I found her remarriage in neighboring Greene County, Illinois in 1830. That gave me a potential death date for my subject; 1824 when his last child was born and 1830. The potential death place would logically be Greene County, Illinois.

To solidify this, I found her second husband in the 1830 Census of Greene County and took note of his “neighborhood” since no township was listed. I also looked for other people with the surname of the first husband. I found one in Roodhouse Township in the land grants and the census. Further research revealed this other person served in the War of 1812 in the 1^st East Tennessee Regiment, which recruited in part out of Knox County. Coincidence? I think not.

Since the second husband didn’t live to the 1840 Census, I took the “neighborhood” from 1830 and compared it with grants. I formed a “neighborhood” in White Hall Township which forms the southern border of Roodhouse Township.

So what did I learn? First I figured my subject most likely settled around his relatives in Roodhouse Township. He died leaving no record. Logically he was probably buried in the now abandoned graveyard in Roodhouse Township with no tombstone. This was where others with his surname were buried. His widow met her second husband, who was landless, and living in the designated 1830 “neighborhood” in White Hall Township. They met and married because they did not live that far apart, and she had small children to support.

All this was “reading between the lines.” None of it can be proven other than exploring common surnames and reconstructing “neighborhoods.” Without a probate, guardianship, land or tombstone, the closest I may ever come to documenting my subject’s death is 1824-1830, in Roodhouse Township. All reading between the lines.

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Old Things Made New – Restorationism (Part 2)

18 Mar By Dwight Leave a Comment

In Part 2 of my discussion on Restorationism, I will focus on select traditions. I will briefly note what they consider to be their contributions to the Christian faith. For the deeper currents of thought, I have included at least one reference work.

Forms of Restoration Belief

Adventists: The post-Millerite Seventh-day Adventist Church is rooted in the “Great Disappointment” of 22 October 1844, when Christ’s Second Coming did not physically occur. They see themselves as a “reformation of the Reformation.” Restored ideas would include Saturday Sabbathkeeping, the gift of prophecy (through Ellen G. White), the correct interpretation of prophetic biblical writings, sleep-state of the dead, and the pre-Advent Judgment. Their status within the evangelical community is debated. For the deeper currents of mainline Adventist thought, consult the Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology (2000) edited by Raoul Dederen. For the life of Mrs. White, see The Ellen G. White Encyclopedia (2014) by Denis Fortin and Jerry Moon.

Baptists: Expressed from several directions, there is no one Baptist Church. Most would consider themselves evangelical. Others would see themselves as exclusive. Landmarkism is an example of Baptist Restorationism. Restoration ideas include believer’s baptism by full immersion after salvation, congregational government and the personal authority of the believer to interpret the Bible. Some denominations would add footwashing, Saturday Sabbathkeeping and a free-will theology. For a full discussion of the development of Baptist Thought, see James Leo Garrett’s Baptist Theology: a Four-Century Study (2009).

Christians (Disciples): Arising on the American Frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement called for Christian unity. This was to be accomplished through restoring the primitive New Testament church. By 1860, they had become the fifth largest church in the United States. Variations are extreme, ranging from Liberal Protestant ecumenical thought to strictly exclusive with no compromises. Historic Restorationist ideas include believer’s baptism for the remission of sins, congregational autonomy and using no denominational names – simply Christian or Disciple. Some would add forbidding instrumental music and choirs in worship; others admit them. For all expressions of this movement consult The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement (2004), edited by Douglas A. Foster, Paul M. Blowers, Anthony L. Dunnavant and D. Newell Williams. For some conservative theology consult Jack Cottrell’s The Faith Once for All: Bible Doctrine for Today (2002)

Holiness: Rooted as far back as the 1830s, a distinct evangelical holiness movement emerged out of North American and UK Methodism by the 1860s. Their emphasis was on John Wesley’s doctrine of Christian Perfection, termed Entire Sanctification. This constitutes a secondary experience and completes the process of salvation begun at conversion. Two excellent texts for discussing this specific concept is Diane Leclerc’s Discovering Christian Holiness: the Heart of Wesleyan-Holiness Theology (2010) and J. Kenneth Grider’s Entire Sanctification: The Distinctive Doctrine of Wesleyanism (1980).

Pentecostals: Rooted in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement at the turn of the twentieth century United States, most Pentecostals would see themselves as evangelicals. Some scholars consider Pentecostals a new branch of Christianity. They see their mission is to restore the Gifts of the Holy Spirit to the world and usher in the Second Coming of Jesus. Currently, they are the second largest branch of Christianity worldwide with some half billion adherents. The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (2002) edited by Stanley M. Burgess and Eduard M. Van Der Maas covers major movements, trends and theology.

Plymouth Brethren: Rooted in Dublin in 1827-8. Its largest impact has been in the UK, Ireland and in British Commonwealth countries. They see themselves as a restoration of the New Testament Church, with some Brethren seeing themselves as the only true church. There are varieties of “Open Brethren” and “Closed (Exclusive) Brethren.” They see their contribution as helping to restore and develop the Rapture Theology. A standard history is A History of the Brethren Movement: Its Origins, Its Worldwide Development and Its Significance for the Present Day (2001), by F. Roy Coad and F. F. Bruce. The enormously popular Scofield Study Bible (1909) building upon the Brethren approach has embedded Rapture Theology firmly into Evangelical Thought, especially in the United States.

Mormons: Founded in 1830 there developed several Latter Day Saint denominations. The largest is the Utah LDS Church. Their historic impact was in the development of Western North America with colonies stretching from southern Alberta down to northern Mexico. They see the New Testament church went completely apostate and needed a restoration through modern-day prophets, apostles and scripture. While Mormons consider themselves Christian, they are not Protestants. Scholars debate whether they are a new branch of Christianity or an emerging new world religion. The Utah church’s restored theology concerning “work for the dead,” including baptism for the dead, affects family history to no small degree. One contemporary work for Utah Mormon Thought is LDS Beliefs: A Doctrinal Reference (2011), edited by Robert Millet, Camille Fronk Olson, Andrew C. Skinner and Brent L. Top. For an in-depth academic treatment of founding prophet-president Joseph Smith, see Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling (2005) by Richard Lyman Bushman.

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Old Things Made New – Restorationism (Part 1)

14 Mar By Dwight Leave a Comment

Restorationism is the theology that the primitive New Testament Church of 2,000 years ago either went underground or morphed into a complete apostasy with the rise of the Roman Catholic Church. This theology historically has been powerful force. It placed how to restore that ancient church in the hands of everyday people. Historically, it affected Protestant Irish and their descendants, beginning on the American Frontier and in Ulster, then spreading far and wide.

Restorationism Saw Something Lacking in Protestantism

Restorationism has taken many forms arising out of Protestantism. Variations of this theme are diverse. Historically, most have seen that the Protestant Reformation neglected important principles. Depending on the group, they either saw themselves as a reformation of the Reformation or bypassing it all together with particular Restoration principles. Thus, some Restorationists do not consider themselves Protestants.

How this played out in the developing United States has been documented in Richard T. Hughes and C. Leonard Allen’s work Illusions of Innocence: Protestant Primitivism in America, 1630-1875 (1988). On the surface, the variations of Restorationism seem unrelated. However, below the surface are many common themes, driving forces, spiritual rebellions and for the time period, radical thinking.

Differences in Restoration groups are usually the emphasis placed on particular concepts. In some cases, the application of the same principle plays out differently among groups.

Baptists and Christians (Disciples) Apply the Restoration Principles

For example, both the Baptist and the Christians (Disciples) see believer’s baptism by full immersion as an essential piece of restoring the primitive New Testament church. However, the application is totally different. In the Baptist tradition, baptism is not linked to salvation, but is a sign of commitment after the salvation experience. Salvation is by faith only. In the Christian (Disciples) tradition, the conservative branches teach baptism is essential to salvation. It is not separate from faith or the salvation experience.

Historically in some areas such as Kentucky and Tennessee, both traditions developed side by side to become very prominent as both competed for converts. If you’ve ever driven through rural Middle Tennessee and you see a church sign for the local Baptist Church of Christ, then do a double take. This is how Restoration principles played out on the local level as it combined elements of both the Baptists and the Christians (Disciples). Then do another double take and realize that you may be surrounded by Baptist congregations and Church of Christ congregations. Then you will see how powerful of a force Restorationism remains to this day in Middle Tennessee.

In Part 2 of this blog, I will discuss some major threads of Restorationism and what they considered needed to be restored. I will also provide at least one reference work for each tradition which will allow you to continue exploring this fascinating topic.

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Baptist Theology and the Written Record

7 Mar By Dwight Leave a Comment

Baptist records are a direct reflection of Baptist attitudes and theology. On the American frontier, Baptists spread like wildfire during the Second Great Awakening (1790-1830). However, records were not always kept for those converting in revival meetings.

Reasons Why Baptists Were Poor Record Keepers

Historically, many frontier ministers were not professionally trained. They “received a call from God” to preach and that was their credentials. A literate frontier minister was secondary to the “call to preach.” The reason for this is based in the idea that a person’s salvation was based upon a personal experience between the individual and God. Literacy was not the focus as salvation and God’s word was open to all people.

Aligned to this is the importance of the local congregation. If patterned after the ancient New Testament Church, then the local congregation of believers was qualified to their own inspiration. They were fully capable of interpreting and living the principles of the New Testament.

As the frontier was settled, congregations established, and education more available, records were generated. This helped document members, transfers in and out, donations, and disciplinary actions. All record keeping was at the judgment of the local congregation. The believers, as the congregation, together make up the body of Christ. The local congregation is a sacred Baptist concept.

Baptist Theology and the Records Left Behinds

In Baptist theology, salvation is an experience based upon the faith and confession of the believer. It is not based upon baptism. Baptism is by total immersion as a sign of commitment, faith and admission into the church. A record of the “believer’s baptism” may or may not have ever been kept.

An excellent introductory text is Bill J. Leonard’s Baptist Questions, Baptist Answers: Exploring Christian Faith (2009). For the development of Baptist doctrine see James Leo Garrett’s work Baptist Theology: A Four Century Study (2009). For contemporary in-depth systematic theologies representing a general Baptist or Baptist-Calvinistic perspective, I recommend:

Akin, Daniel L., ed. A Theology for the Church (2007). Position: Southern Baptist Convention; revised edition due in 2014.

Bird, Michael F., Evangelical Theology: A Biblical and Systematic Introduction (2013). General evangelical approach by an Australian Baptist theologian.

Enns, Paul, The Moody Handbook of Theology: Revised and Expanded (2008). Position: conservative evangelical and dispensationalist.

Erickson, Millard J., Christian Theology (3rd ed., 2013). Position: Baptist-Calvinistic and General Protestant.

Geisler, Norman L. Systematic Theology 4 vols. (2002-2005). Position: Baptist-Calvinistic, conservative evangelical. His four volume series is now condensed into one.

Grudem, Wayne, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (2000). Position: Baptist-Calvinistic, Charismatic and General Protestant.

Lewis, Gordon R. and Bruce A. Demarest, Integrative Theology: Historical, Biblical, Systematic, Apologetic, Practical (1996). Position: conservative Baptist.

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Who Were Your Ancestor’s Associates

21 Feb By Dwight Leave a Comment

I was tracing a Scots-Irish man in Central Pennsylvania. He married at a particular Presbyterian Church in 1808. He never owned land and moved in 1814 without much of a paper trail. Now What?

Creating a Research Strategy

I began studying the records of that particular Presbyterian congregation concentrating on the period 1800-1814. I figured he had to be associated with someone in that congregation for some reason. On the frontier, people just did not travel alone. My logic was to identify a group of people whom he may have known and immigrated with from Ulster. This period put me in touch with the 1800 and 1810 censuses. Fortunately, the admissions to communion (1807-1842), dismissals (1807-1840), marriages (1807-1841), baptisms (1807-1839) and deaths (1808-1839) had all been extracted and published in 1895 in the periodical Notes and Queries: Historical and Genealogical Chiefly Relating to Interior Pennsylvania.

Developing the Research Strategy

While most of the records began in 1807, I learned it was an older congregation from an 1884 church history also published in this periodical. I learned it shared a minister with a nearby congregation for many years. That other congregation had records back to 1741.

The key here was my subject was not among the older established families, but a latecomer after 1800. Also published for the congregation was a Subscription List (1771). This helped me identify older established family from the latecomers. The associates of my targeted frontiersman would have been among the latecomers.

I now have a method of separating out the old families from those who arrived after 1800. I can begin studying who was associated with the person I was researching. This would further open up tax lists, wills and land records. Remember, the idea here is that to identify where one of the potential associates came from in Ulster is to potentially identify where my subject also originated.

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American and Baptist: What Kind? (Part 2)

21 Jan By Dwight Leave a Comment

Baptists often divided over cultural, racial, political, polity and doctrinal issues. The listing below will outline major traditions, both white and black.

Major Baptist Denominations in the United States

American Baptist Churches USA: Considered Mainline Protestant, it has historically been known as “Northern Baptists.” The American Baptist Churches traces back to the first Baptists, but the convention itself back to 1814. This multi-ethnic denominations is concentrated in the Midwest and Northeast.

Free Will Baptists: Concentrated mainly in the South and Midwest, although at one time it was strong in New England, the largest organization, the National Association of Free Will Baptists traces its lineage from two different lines dating to 1727 and 1780.

General Baptists: Located mainly in the Midwest, the General Association of General Baptists is rooted back to 1823 in Indiana.

Independent Baptists: Independent Baptists began in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in reaction against liberalism and modernism. Congregations nationwide maintain their autonomy.

National Baptists: An African American denomination founded in 1880, the National Baptist Convention, USA is the world’s second largest Baptist denomination.

Primitive Baptists: Historically known as Hard Shell, Anti-Mission, or Old School Baptists, the Primitive Baptists formed in the early 1800s mainly in and the mountainous regions of the Southeast. The white Primitive Baptists have Internet websites where you can find more general information Primitive Baptist Church as a whole. The African American denomination is the National Primitive Baptist Convention, USA.

Seventh Day Baptists: Coming out of English Baptists, the first congregation was formed in Newport, RI in 1671. The Seventh Day Baptist General Conference worships on Saturday.

Southern Baptist Convention: The Southern Baptist Convention is the largest Baptist denomination in the world. Founded in 1845 over slavery issues; it is heavily concentrated in the South. Historically, it was predominately white.

Each tradition generated a paper trail and wove itself into the local and national experience, helping define what it meant to be an American.

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American and Baptist: What Kind? (Part 1)

17 Jan By Dwight Leave a Comment

The Baptist tradition is so interwoven into American history that it cannot be separated out. This alone makes Baptist Studies an important part of your family history research. For your Irish Studies, vast numbers of Scots-Irish and their descendants joined the Baptist Church in America as did many Irish Catholics after immigrating.

What Kind of Baptist Church Did Your Ancestors Belong

In documenting a Baptist family, the first question to ask is: What kind of Baptist? Today, all Baptists combined comprise the second largest religious grouping in the country; with the Southern Baptist Convention being the largest Protestant denomination.

Baptists congregations range from militantly independent conservatives on the right to socially oriented and ecumenically minded on the left. There are those who worship on Saturday or Sunday; small groups in almost compound-like settings and mega churches hosting tens of thousands of worshipers at a time. Congregations also can change their allegiance to a larger convention or association or establish their own governing body or none at all.

The Roots of Baptists in America

The earliest Baptists came from England with the first congregation founded in Providence, Rhode Island in 1639 by William Rogers. If you do not find an ancestor, for example, in the predominant Congregational Church in New England, then they may have been Baptists.

During the Second Great Awakening (1790-1830), Baptists would spread into new areas and people. It was also the Baptists, along with the Methodists who would win the hearts of African Americans. So whether you are tracing a white, black or even a mixed-blood Indian lineage; chances are you will come across Baptist ancestors along the way.

In Part 2 of this blog, I will discuss the major Baptist denominations in the United States as they all left behind records from which to document an ancestor.

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Landmarkism and Your American Scots-Irish Ancestors

25 Oct By Dwight Leave a Comment

Knowledge of regional religious movements can help forward your research. In the case of Landmarkism, theology affected the descendants of Scots-Irish immigrants who had already joined the Baptists in America. It can be found mainly in the Southeastern and Southwestern United States.

In 1851, Baptists in Kentucky and Tennessee began questioning whether a non-immersed minister from another denomination could preach in a Baptist congregation. The question spoke to the very nature of the church. The conclusion for many was such ministers had a false baptism and a false view of the church.

The Meaning of Landmark

The term Landmark comes from Proverbs 22:28 “Remove not the ancient landmark, which thy fathers have set” (KJV). In their reasoning, these landmarks included congregational autonomy, believer’s baptism by immersion, closed communion and a belief the true church has always been on the earth since New Testament times. The unbroken succession of the true church means the Baptist Church.

The Impact of Landmarkism

The impact of Landmarkism can be still felt among those who reject it. For example, many Baptist will rebaptize non-immersed Christians from other denominations who wish to become Baptists. Landmarkism also became somewhat of a litmus test of the true church and proof Baptists are not Protestants. In 1859, the Southern Baptist Convention rejected Landmarkism. This caused many to withdraw forming their own Landmark congregations.

Landmark Baptist Websites

The website Landmark Baptist: Non-Protestant Baptists holds a wealth of background information. In its “Reference” section are scanned older works documenting people in the movement. The Baptist History Homepage includes biographies, links to old periodicals and is continually adding old documents and books.

It is within journals, books and controversies that your ancestor may have been named as a participant. For further information, see the chapter “Baptist Landmarkism” in James Leo Garrett’s Baptist Theology: A Four Century Study (2009).

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