Caribbean Islands

White Folk in the Colonial Food Chain

27 Jun By Dwight

The English Colonial records of North America and the Caribbean have unfamiliar terms referencing the European population. Confusion arises because we have no context for the lives of the population in the 1600s and 1700s.

This was a world where people were graded economically. Racism was based on social status, not skin color. The economy of colony and wealth building was graded from the few at the top to those in bondage at the bottom. Under this system, slaves (servants, apprentices) could be African, European, Native American or from the Indian Sub-Continent (called East India Indians).

Four Categories of Whites in Colonial North America

There were four main categories for the incoming Europeans, and will be found in court, land, and church registers. However, it is not always clear what is inferred. Just be aware that terminology changes by locality and time period.

White Freeman Who Owned Property: Is defined as a white male over 21 who owned real or personal property of a particular value. He was endorsed by a majority of other Freemen in the community. He had the right to vote and pay taxes.
White Freeman: A free male over 21, not bound, was considered a White Freeman. In the Southern colonies it was freed slaves or anyone who voted or paid taxes.
White Apprentices: A broad term applied to bondage, such as indentured servant, redemptioner, free-willer, and apprentices. Terms such as apprentice and servant, obscured what the terms of bondage may have really meant.
White Slave: This is a person who was bound to a master. Chattel slavery, which was for a lifetime, grew out of the indentured servant system. Slaves could be prisoners, religious or political dissidents, orphans or social outcasts. In the English colonies, African slavery would replace European slavery.

Whites could move up from one grade to the next one. For example, an indentured servant or slave can become a freeman and eventually a landed freeman owning slaves.

This was their world and their values. If you judge them by our standards, you may miss what a particular record is trying to convey.

If you would like help with your genealogy please call 385-214-0925.

Genealogy in Black and White

17 Feb By Dwight

In researching a mixed-race nineteenth century family in Barbados, my goal was to trace the Afro-Caribbean and European lines. My difficulty was in determining the race of the people in the Anglican (Church of England) parish registers.

The church registers are indexed and scanned. Using the online indexes exclusively actually confused my understanding of the records. After reviewing the Anglican parish registers page-by-page and doing some historical research, I developed a context of the society and its records.

The Historical Context

The slaves were freed in Barbados in 1834. The Anglican registers did not list race. A transitional apprenticeship program for a few years was introduced at that time. In 1838 it became illegal to discriminate against people of color.

The Complexities of the Records

From 1834, many adults, who had been slaves, were baptized into this particular parish. No parents were listed. Prior to 1834 there were special Slave Registers of parish members. My assumption would be the main register was reserved for all free persons, white or black.

From 1834 former slaves were having children baptized. Surnames of these children, if there were any, were not mentioned. Afro-Caribbeans families had to be traced by first name only. These were recorded on the same pages as people with first and last names. My assumption was if there was no last name then they were former slaves. If surnames were given, then the family could be white or black. I further narrowed this by assuming those who signed with an “X” were either poor illiterate blacks or whites. That helped separate families further by economics. If they signed, then I assumed they were more educated whites.

After emancipation, the number of mothers having children christened with no fathers listed was staggering. Were these illegitimate births without surnames? My conclusion was not necessarily. I noticed that around 1842, most families listed last names and the name of the father was recorded. Perhaps the Anglican priest did not consider the father’s name or surname important. Perhaps he simply didn’t care. Possibly by around 1842 the priest was conforming to the new anti-discrimination law (1838).

Lessons Learned

The lesson learned was, had I relied only on the index to the parish registers I would have missed a great deal of important information. I would have confused the white, poor white, free person of color, emancipated slave and those without surnames from at least 1834 to about 1842. My conclusion was that there was a several year process that merged the Afro-Caribbean membership and the white membership into one parish. The process was so complex, that an accurate online index could not do the subject justice.

If you are seeking professional assistance with your genealogical research you may call us at 385-214-0925.

Colonial Laws and the Indentured Servant (Part2)

16 Dec By Dwight Leave a Comment

Laws governing human bondage in the English colonies did not happen overnight. As needed, laws were enacted by the colonial assemblies. The Virginia and Maryland colonies were the two most powerful mainland colonies. They lead the way in defining exactly what human bondage really meant. Lawmakers didn’t think in terms of color, but in people as a commodity. For this reason, colonial laws would apply to all races.

Using Virginia colony as an example; in a December 1662 law, women servants who became pregnant by their masters were to finish out their term and then be bound over to the local church to be sold for an extra two years of servitude. An October 1670 law pronounced that all non-Christians brought by shipping (by sea) shall be a slave for life, but if brought by land (from another colony) as children they were to serve until they are 30 years old. If they were adults and brought by land, they were to serve for only 12 years. In April 1691, all whites, bond or free were forbidden from intermarrying with blacks, mulattos or Indians. This law also stated that free white women who had an illegitimate child by a black, mulatto or Indian would be bound out by the local parish church for five years and the child bound until the age of 30.

It was a series of Virginia laws passed in October 1705 which began to define in detail what a slave was. The main points were:

*Slaves brought into the colony by land or sea (except Turks and Moors) remained slaves regardless of converting to Christianity.

*Free people who were Christians in their own country were not to be sold as slaves.

*No black, mulatto, Indian, Jew, Muslim or other infidel could purchase Christian white servants.

*White men or women intermarrying with blacks and mulattoes were to go to prison for 6 months with no bail.

*If any slave resists their master during correction, it was legal to kill them as part of the correction. Escaped slaves could be killed.

*A Christian baptism does not exempt a person from bondage, and the status of all children was according to the condition of the mother.

This was the world of our colonial ancestors regardless of color!

Colonial Powers in the Caribbean

10 Nov By Dwight Leave a Comment

In this blog, I’d like to share an important historical accounting of which European powers had colonial governments on the various Caribbean islands. Many of the islands switched many times between various governments. This does affect the records you will be looking for. The Irish, both Catholic and Protestant, were on most of these islands from at least the early 1600s.

Often seventeenth and eighteenth century records, or transcripts of the records, were sent back to the parent country. This means that even if the island copy was destroyed (think war, earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes, mold and mildew) that a second copy may have survived. These second copies are often microfilmed and at the Family History Library: www.familysearch.org.

The island and the colonial powers which you will need to be familiar with are below (see a modern reference map below). The listing was taken from the incredible reference work by Christina K. Schaefer, Genealogical Encyclopedia of the Colonial Americas (1998): www.genealogical.com (pp. 127-128), a book worthy of any genealogical library collection:

Anguilla: England (1650), France (1666), England (1671), France (1689), Great Britain (1713).

Antigua: England (1631), France (1666), England (1671), Moravian settlement added in 1754.

Aruba: The Netherlands (1634).

Bahamas: England (1645), Spain (1684), England (1694), pirates from Spain and France (1703), Great Britain (1708).

Barbados: England (1627).

Barbuda: England (1629), France (1666), England (1671).

Bermuda: England (1612).

Bonaire: The Netherlands (1634).

Cuba: Spain (1511).

Curacao: The Netherlands (1634).

Dominica: England and France (1627), neutral (1748), Great Britain (1756), France (1778), Great Britain (1783).

Dominican Republic: see Hispaniola.

Grenada: England (1609), France (1650), Great Britain (1762), France (1779), Great Britain (1783).

Guadeloupe: France (1635), Great Britain (1759), France (1763).

Haiti: see Hispaniola.

Hispaniola (Dominican Republic/Haiti): Spain (1493), France takes over western end of island (1697).

Jamaica: Spain (1509), England (1655).

Martinique: France (1635), Great Britain (1762), France (1763).

Montserrat: England and Ireland (1632), France (1666), England (1671).

Nevis: England (1628).

Providence Island: England (1630), Spain (1641).

Puerto Rico: Spain (1508).

Saba: The Netherlands (1634).

Saint Bartholomew: France (1648), Sweden (1784), France (1878).

Saint Kitts (Saint Christopher): England (1623), France and England (1625), France (1666), England (1667), France (1689), Great Britain (1713).

Saint Croix: England, The Netherlands and France (1625), England (1645), France (1650), Denmark (1733).

Saint-Domingue: see Hispaniola

Saint Eustatius: The Netherlands (1600).

Saint John: Denmark (1672).

Saint Lucia: France (1639), England (1663), France (1667), Great Britain and France (1713), France (1723), neutral (1748), Great Britain (1756), France (1763), Great Britain (1778), France (1783).

Saint Martin: France and The Netherlands (1648).

Saint Thomas: Denmark (1672).

Saint Vincent: England (1627), neutral (1660), Carib Indians (1672), Great Britain (1722), neutral (1748), Great Britain and France (1756), Great Britain (1763), France (1779), Great Britain (1783).

Tobago: England, The Netherlands and France (1632), neutral (1748), Great Britain (1763), France (1781), Great Britain (1793).

Tortola: The Netherlands (1666), England (1672).

Tortuga: Buccaneers from England, France, The Netherlands, Portugal and Spain (1630), Spain (1635).

Trinidad: Spain (1509), French settlement added in 1777, Great Britain (1797).

The Irish Connection to Montserrat (Part 2)

21 Oct By Dwight Leave a Comment

Genealogy in Montserrat was changed beginning with the 1995 eruption of Mount Chance which buried the capitol Plymouth. Most of the island’s population became refugees.

Even with the losses of some records and cemeteries, many earliest records had already been microfilmed or published. For example, microfilmed deeds can be found at the University of the West Indies (UWI), and the earliest Anglican registers are at the National Archives in Kew. No primary records survive prior to 1712 as they were burned in the French invasion.

The island historically was divided into four parishes for administrative purposes: St. Peter (north), St. Anthony (central), St. Patrick (south) and St. George (east). A newer parish of St. John’s was created. All five had Anglican parishes.

Historic cemeteries were destroyed in the eruption, others abandoned or inaccessible. Fortunately, the tombstones from select ones had been transcribed in 1913-14 in Vere Langford Oliver’s More Monumental Inscriptions: Tombstones of the British West Indies. Historic residents of all denominations would have been buried in the Anglican parish graveyards.

Important early records such as censuses and church registers have been published in Caribbeana: http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00075409/00002/allvolumes Early censuses, housed at the National Archives have been extracted in Caribbeana: 1677/8 (Vol. 2, pp. 216-320) and 729 (Volume 4, p. 302). Early eighteenth century Anglican Church registers published in Caribbeana include: St. Anthony (Volume 1, pp. 42-44, 86-88, 92-93, 138-139); St. George: (Volume 1, pp. 88-90, 139); St. Patrick (Volume 1, p. 92); St. Peter (Volume 1, pp. 90-92, 139-140); various (Volume 1, pp. 361-364).

The earliest Catholic registers (1771-1838) are at the UWI. In regard to the Catholic graveyard at St. Patrick’s, it was destroyed in the eruption with no surviving records or transcripts.

Some Internet resources include “Caribbean Genealogy Research: www.candoo.com/genresources/#MONTSERRAT ; “Caribbean Surname Index”: www.candoo.com/surnames/viewforum.php?f=89 and the Montserrat GenWeb Project: www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~msrwgw

The Irish Connection to Montserrat (Part 1)

20 Oct By Dwight Leave a Comment

The Caribbean Island of Montserrat has a long history with the Irish. It is a small island. This first of a two blog will focus on the early Irish Catholic history of the island. Many North Americans, white and black, are descendants of these the colonial Irish Catholic indentured servants, white slaves, prisoners and settlers.

Montserrat was founded as an English colony in 1632, by Irish Catholic indentured servants from St. Kitts. It became a Catholic colony ruled by Protestants. A second wave of settlers came in 1634; Catholic refugees fleeing persecution in Virginia.

Recruiting schemes successfully brought Irish to the island to grow tobacco. Additional waves of settlers arrived in 1641-45 as the term for many white indentured servants in St. Kitts and Barbados expired. In 1649 the island was used as a dumping ground for Irish slaves and prisoners following the Cromwellian victory in Ireland. By 1666, the population consisted of 3,250 including 300 English, 2,000 Irish and 650 African slaves.

In 1667 many left during war between France and England, both which had colonies in the Caribbean. The Irish Catholics sided with the French, and were sent to Nevis. Montserrat lay in ruins. By 1678 the island was being rebuilt with the economy based on a few large plantations. The census for that year showed 2,682 whites and 992 slaves. About two-thirds of the whites were Irish subsistence farmers. With little opportunity for advancement, the white population steadily decreased.

The wars between England and France (1689-1714) would cause most of the Irish farmers to abandon their holdings and leave. Catholics who remained were subject to harsh laws. The 1756 Census showed a population of 10,283, of whom 1,430 were white and 8,853 black.

In tomorrow’s blog, I will discuss the records of Montserrat.

The Irish Connection to Jamaica

17 Sep By Dwight Leave a Comment

Jamaica has a long history with the Irish immigration from the 1660s through the 1840s. In 1655, the English invaded and took the island from Spain. The wealth this colony brought back to England was simply unimaginable.

The first Irish were indentured servants in the 1600s. This would shift to the massive African slavery. The two groups intermarried creating a distinct “Black Irish.” Many Loyalists from the mainland went to the island during and after the American Revolution. By 1785, the population stood at 30,000 whites, 10,000 “free colored,” and 250,000 slaves. The slaves were emancipated in 1834, and new workers were imported including Irish from counties Antrim and Kildare.

Jamaica is divided into parishes, and records are classified by this system. Some parishes have been absorbed into others. Reference works to guide you through the many records are Madeleine E. Mitchell’s Jamaican Ancestry: How to Find Out More (2008); Stephen D. Porter’s Jamaican Records: A Research Manual (1999).

The Jamaica Archives and Records Department in Kingston: www.jard.gov.jm houses the primary records of the country. Large collections are on microfilm at the Family History Library: www.familysearch.org The state religion from 1655 was the Anglican Church. Quakers, Jews, Roman Catholics, Methodists and Moravians all had a historical presence. The best way to trace Quakers is in the Philadelphia Friends records transferring from Jamaica, as most had left by 1749.

Records can also be found at the National Archives (KEW): www.nationalarchives.gov.uk Genealogy sites include “Genealogy in Jamaica”: www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~jamwgw An equally amazing website is “Jamaican Family Search”: www.jamaicanfamilysearch.com The “Caribbean Genealogy Research” website has a Jamaica page which has handy inventories: www.candoo.com/genreseources/jamaica.htm

Because, Jamaica was such an important colony in the British Empire, a wealth of records were left behind from which to trace your Irish roots. This crosses all color lines.

The Irish Connection to Bermuda

19 Aug By Dwight Leave a Comment

The Caribbean Island of Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by a group of shipwrecked colonists who were sailing for the Jamestown settlement in Virginia. Many Irish prisoners were transported to the island during the mid-seventeenth century. However, six months after a thwarted revolt in 1658, a resolution was passed making it illegal “to buy or purchase any more of the Irish nation upon any pretense whatsoever.” In 1684 Bermuda became an English colony, with close connections to the colonies of Virginia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Georgia.

In 1767 it became a base for the British Caribbean fleet and home for traveling British militia. The military and the accompanying infrastructure continued to bring Irish to the island. During the American Revolution, Bermuda became home to many Loyalists fleeing the mainland.

The majority of Bermuda’s records are at the Bermuda Archives in Hamilton: www.gov.bm (click on archives), which houses 400 years of records. Many of their primary collections are on microfilm at the Family History Library: www.familysearch.org

There are also many websites which can provide help and have databases of extracted records, such as “Bermudian Genealogy & History”: www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~bmuwgw/bermuda.htm There are also reference works such as Helen Rowe’s A Guide to the Records of Bermuda (1980) and two works by Clara Hollis-Hallett Early Bermuda Records 1619-1826 (1991) and Bermuda Index 1784-1914 (1989). A recent guide is John Titford’s My Ancestors Settled in the British West Indies: Bermuda, British Guiana and British Honduras(2011).

When considering Bermuda research, for colonials, consider migration to the southern mainland a possibility. Also, the strong British military presence makes this a natural place for your ancestor to have spent some time.

The Important Irish Connection to Barbados

18 Jul By Dwight Leave a Comment

Barbados was settled by the English in 1627, and became a center for the sugar industry. The island had a combination of slaves and indentured servants; both African and European. The Irish were an important piece of this trade in human bondage. Much has been written about the “Barbadosed” Irish, who were sent to the island as slaves under Oliver Cromwell: www.yale.edu/glc/tangledroots/Barbadosed.htm The number sent will never be known, but estimates range from 60,000 to 12,000.

For colonial Catholics, remember, this was a Protestant colony, so your ancestors will be found in the Anglican records. There were also Irish Moravians and Quakers on Barbados. Quakers can be traced to counties Leix (Queens) and Wicklow.

A useful reference work is Geraldine Lane, Tracing Ancestors in Barbados: A Practical Guide (2007) as well as numerous published and online articles. One handy article is Dwight A. Radford and Arden C. White’s article, “The Irish in Barbados,” in The Irish At Home and Abroad 2 (3) )1994/5): 92-97.

Major resources include James C. Brandow’s Genealogies of Barbados Families (1983) and JoAnne McRee’s six volume series Barbados Records(1979-1984). Much has also been preserved in Vere Langford Oliver’s Caribbeana and The Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society. The core records can be found at the Barbados National Archives; the National Archives, Kew: www.nationalarchives.gov.uk with much on microfilm at the Family History Library: www.familysearch.org

For those of us with Irish colonial ancestry in the English colonies, whether white or black, Barbados is such as important link that we dare not ignore it.

Two Little Known Penal Colonies Where Irish Were Sent

7 Jul By Dwight Leave a Comment

Court records at the National Library of Ireland: www.nli.ie detail prisoners who were transported to the penal colonies at Bermuda, Gibraltar and Tasmania (Van Dieman’s Land). Classified as Ms. 3016, this amazing set of transportation records covers 1849-1850. They show the Irish court a person was convicted in, the addresses of friends and relatives, religion and the prisoner’s age. While transportation to Australia is well known, the other penal colonies, including Bermuda and Gibraltar remain relatively unknown.

In Bermuda, the convicts were used for labor in the dockyard and aboard ships anchored in the bay off Boaz Island. Convict labor was also used to build the dockyard and Royal Naval Dockyard on Ireland Island. Conditions were harsh and many prisoners died of yellow fever. This lead to prison revolts and the execution of many of those involved.

The “convict establishment” was closed in 1865. The men were taken to England or carried to Australia on “tickets of leave.” Records documenting the lives of these convicts are in the Assignment Lists and Quarterly Returns of the Hulk Establishments (Series HO11) at the National Archives, Kew: www.nationalarchives.gov.uk The HO series have been indexed on a searchable database on the State Library of Queensland as “Convict Transportation Register Database”: www.slq.qld.gov.au/info/fh/convicts

The British used prisoners to work on the docks in Gibraltar. They began sending convicts to labor on fortifications in 1842. These prisoners lived on ships in the harbor and were not allowed to associate with the local population. When one escaped the town bells would ring until he was recaptured. They were shipped back to Great Britain and Ireland after their terms expired.

The history of Irish convicts is both fascinating and heart wrenching at the same time. The reasons people were transported can be both sobering and mindboggling.

Call Today! 801.699.2450

Or send us an Email